This consumer guide to precious-metal articles explains what buyers should know about marks, materials, gemstones and pearls, goldsmithing techniques, and the use, care and repair of objects.
1 · Buyer’s guide
Buying precious-metal articles
Precious-metal marks and gemstone certificates
In Finland, the fineness and marking of precious-metal articles are defined by law. Holders of a responsibility mark registered with the Finnish Safety Technology Authority are entitled to manufacture or import precious-metal articles. As a rule, an article must bear marks identifying its maker and material. It may also bear a year mark, locality mark and control mark.
Many countries have neither legislation nor market surveillance governing precious-metal articles, so buying them abroad is always more or less at the purchaser’s own risk. In Finland, the marks on an article provide evidence of the precious metal’s authenticity.
Precious metals — gold, silver, platinum and palladium — have world-market prices, so the materials used are equally valuable everywhere. The price of a finished piece of jewellery also includes the cost of its stones, manufacture, taxes and other expenses, which often make up most of the price.
Finland has no legislation governing gemstones and pearls. When buying a valuable gemstone, ask the seller for a certificate stating its name, weight, colour, clarity and cut.
Scrap gold and silver
Scrap gold means gold articles that are no longer wanted and are therefore scrapped. A scrap-gold buyer is interested only in the gold contained in the piece, not its alloying metals or the costs included in its original purchase price. The gold must be separated from the other materials and reprocessed before it can be used again. The seller will therefore receive nowhere near the original price, or even the world-market value of the gold contained in the article. Marks are important evidence of the material when unwanted precious-metal objects are sold.
Other regulations and guidance
Weights and Measures Act and guidance issued by Tukes
If a business sells chains or buys scrap gold by weight, for example, it must have a verified scale. A verification label attached to the scale shows that it has been verified, and the customer must be able to see the weighing result.
Consumer Protection Act and Consumer Ombudsman’s guidance
The Act and the Ombudsman’s guidance also apply to the precious-metals trade. Goods sold in a sale must first have been offered at the normal price in the same shop. A closing-down sale may be advertised for no more than six months when the business is ceasing altogether. Under the guidance current when this booklet appeared, renovation sales and other sales could last no more than two months at a time and no more than three months in one calendar year; special offers could normally last only about one month.
Tips for buyers
- Check that clasps and pin mechanisms work and that earring backs fit firmly.
- Check that soldered joints are neat and the surfaces properly finished.
- Check that cutlery handles are firmly and straightly attached to the working ends.
- Check that fork tines and knife blades are sufficiently sharp, but other edges are not.
- If you intend to collect or extend a set, make sure the same series will remain available from the manufacturer.
- For jewellery intended for daily wear, ask the seller about the durability of its construction, metal and stones.
2 · Identification
Marks on precious-metal articles
Rules on marking precious-metal articles have existed in Finland since the fifteenth century. At first a maker’s mark was required, followed by a year mark and later a locality mark. Old objects may also bear a zigzag line made by the guild elder, or alderman, to show that he had inspected the article. Present marking practices largely date from 1810. The marks allow a buyer to establish an article’s origin and precious-metal fineness.
Control mark
The control mark, or crown mark, identifies the assay office that inspected the product. It certifies that the fineness and other statutory requirements were checked and that the manufacturer was registered. Finnish control marks show a crown on a heart-shaped ground. An oval ground formerly indicated an imported article. Inspection and control marking became voluntary in 2001.
Responsibility mark
The manufacturer, seller or importer must mark the product with a responsibility mark. It may be a capital letter or a combination of letters. Before 2001, pictorial devices were also accepted. Responsibility marks are registered with Tukes.
Fineness mark
The fineness mark identifies the precious metal and its proportion in the article. An oval ground denotes gold, a rectangle silver, a diamond-shaped ground platinum and an ingot-shaped ground palladium. Without the ground shape, it could be difficult to distinguish gold-plated silver from gold, for example.
The number gives the minimum precious-metal content in parts per thousand (‰): 585 means 585 parts per thousand, or 58.5 per cent. Only prescribed finenesses may be used. When the guide appeared, the permitted Finnish finenesses were 375, 585, 750, 916 and 999 for gold; 800, 830, 925 and 999 for silver; 850, 900, 950 and 999 for platinum; and 500, 850, 950 and 999 for palladium.
Gold fineness is also commonly expressed in karats. The karat scale divides pure gold into 24 parts: 14 karat = 14/24 = 583.33 ‰. Other metals have no official marking system and may instead be described with abbreviations or names such as MET, metal (any metal) or tin.
Year mark
The year mark gives the year of manufacture. Z8, for example, means 2001. Its use is voluntary.
Locality mark
The locality mark is voluntary. It formerly identified the place of inspection and now identifies the place of manufacture.
Foreign marks
Finland also recognises certain foreign marks, the most important being the Common Control Mark (CCM). When the guide appeared, the Convention had 19 member countries: Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland, Portugal, the Czech Republic, Cyprus, Hungary, Israel, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Poland. CCM-marked articles could be placed on the Finnish market as they stood. Articles marked in another European Economic Area country were accepted if their marks gave consumers the same information as Finnish marks — at least the responsible party and the fineness in parts per thousand.
Articles exempt from marking
Not every article offered for sale has to be marked. When the guide appeared, the common exemptions were gold, platinum and palladium articles weighing less than one gram and silver articles weighing less than ten grams. Even unmarked, they still had to meet the regulation’s requirements. Articles at least 50 years old were exempt, as were certain instruments used for scientific or artistic work, such as silver musical instruments. Raw materials did not have to be marked either.
3 · Metals
Materials and coatings
Pure precious metals are generally too soft for use, so they are alloyed with other metals. Alloying also produces the desired colour, improves working properties and reduces cost. Precious-metal objects may be coated to improve colour, emphasise decoration or stones, or prevent tarnishing. Silver or gold plating does not increase an object’s monetary value, and a precious-metal coating alone does not make it a precious-metal article.
Yellow gold
Gold is alloyed mainly with copper and silver. Changing their proportions varies its colour from greenish to reddish. Paler yellow has traditionally been favoured in southern and central Europe, and a redder shade in Russia, than in Finland. Gold of the “wrong” colour is sometimes plated with the desired shade; the plating wears away in use and reveals the original colour. Gold objects are occasionally lacquered, but are usually left uncoated.
Other yellow metals
Copper is readily distinguished from gold by its red colour, but some copper alloys can deceive even a goldsmith. A yellow metal may be:
- brass, an alloy of copper and zinc
- bronze, mainly copper alloyed with tin or lead
- gold-filled metal, with a thin layer of gold bonded to a base metal.
White gold
White gold does not occur naturally; its colour is produced by adding an alloy containing nickel or palladium. Nickel white gold is generally rhodium plated to improve its colour and prevent nickel release. The Nickel Directive restricts the use of nickel in jewellery and other articles.
Silver
Silver is alloyed with copper. An ordinary silver alloy contains no nickel, although objects have sometimes been nickel plated to prevent tarnishing. Rhodium plating is now often used for pendant chains. Most commonly, silver articles are coated with pure silver.
Platinum
Platinum is normally used almost pure. Its colour resembles white gold, but it is more durable in use and needs no coating.
Palladium
Palladium is a platinum-group metal which was still used relatively little in jewellery when the guide appeared.
Other white or pale metals
Titanium is used for watch cases and, to a lesser extent and often coloured, in jewellery. Tin is a soft metal used for some pins and jewellery, but more often for tankards, candlesticks and similar objects. Nickel silver, formerly called German silver, is not a precious metal either: it is an alloy of copper, nickel and zinc. It is silver plated because the bare alloy gives spoons an unpleasant taste and plating improves its colour.
Having metals tested
Precious metals have neither taste nor smell. Otherwise, identifying a metal without testing can be very difficult. Metal laboratories and assay offices also analyse objects for private customers. Some methods provide an approximate precious-metal content; others can determine the quantities of all the metals more precisely. More exact methods require a sample to be removed, and every analysis at least requires the coating to be removed from a small area. The owner bears any subsequent repair costs.
4 · Gem materials
Stones and pearls
Skilful imitations and copies grown under conditions resembling those in nature are sold for almost every kind of stone and pearl. Natural gemstones formed from combinations of elements under particular temperatures and pressures. Reproducing these conditions makes it possible to create “genuine copies”, or synthetic stones.
Factors affecting value besides authenticity
- Stone or mineral species. Any stone may be used decoratively, but gemstones are generally expected to be hard and rare.
- Size. Gemstone weight is measured in carats; one carat is 0.2 grams. Commonly used diamonds weigh 0.01–0.25 carats.
- Clarity. This describes the soundness of the stone’s internal structure. Cracks, gas bubbles and impurities inside it are called inclusions.
- Colour. Yellowish diamonds cost less than colourless ones; in blue sapphires, cornflower blue is the most valuable shade.
- Cut. A good cut displays the stone’s brilliance and colour. Unusual cuts cost slightly more than ordinary ones.
Cameo
A cameo is a carved relief which uses the different layers of shell or stone.
Spectrolite
Spectrolite is the name given to labradorite found in Finland. It is soft and unsuitable for everyday wear, especially in rings.
Diamond
Diamonds consist of carbon and can even be manufactured industrially. They may be coloured by irradiation. The most valuable natural colour is completely colourless, almost bluish; natural diamonds are usually slightly yellow. Cubic zirconia is one of the most common diamond imitations.
Pearl
The nacre of both natural and cultured pearls grows inside a mollusc around an irritant. The molluscs may live in salt water (Akoya pearls) or fresh water (Biwa pearls). So-called Majorca pearls are wholly artificial imitations.
Emerald
A green gemstone which is expensive when of good quality. Almost all emeralds have inclusions visible to the naked eye.
Ruby and sapphire
Ruby is red corundum. Corundum of every other colour is sapphire, the most common being blue sapphire. Most rubies and blue sapphires in shops are synthetic.
Stone settings
Bezel setting
The edge of the bezel is folded over the edge of the stone. It is used mainly for round-cut stones.
Claw setting
Light reaches the stone from beneath and through decorative openings in the setting, showing a transparent stone to best advantage. Bent claws hold it in place.
Cluster setting
A comparatively large coloured stone or pearl is normally placed in the centre and surrounded by diamonds.
Rub-over setting
The stones are well protected against knocks and neither stones nor settings catch readily on clothing. Metal is rubbed over the stones’ edges.
Grain setting
This is used mainly for rows of small stones. Small grains raised from the metal hold the stones in place.
5 · Manufacture
Goldsmithing techniques
Most precious-metal articles offered for sale are industrially mass-produced. The article or its parts are cast or pressed. Pressed pieces are generally thin; the metal’s crystalline structure is compressed into a durable form and the surface is dense. Jewellery, vessels, cutlery, medals and many other objects are pressed from sheet metal. Cast pieces are thicker, often show small pores and do not withstand bending or enlarging a ring particularly well.
Besides casting and pressing, a goldsmith can use countless hand techniques. Basic methods include sawing, filing, hammering and soldering. Each of the techniques below leaves a characteristic, recognisable finish.
Weaving
Most chains are woven from links of different shapes. Very fine silver wire may also be crocheted, woven or bobbin-laced.
Enamelling
The surface is decorated with a form of glass. Suitable powdered glass is fused onto the object. Genuine enamel does not withstand impacts, unlike plastic imitations.
Filigree
Filigree resembles lace (Latin filum, thread, and granum, grain or bead). Many filigree or filigree-decorated pieces offered for sale are cast copies.
Repoussé
A three-dimensional design is produced by working the metal alternately from both sides with punches whose tips have different shapes. A similar appearance can also be produced by pressing.
Niello
Niello resembles pencil marks on the surface (Latin niger, black). A mixture of silver, copper and lead is fused into recesses cut into the object.
Engraving
Text and pictures may be engraved by hand or machine. An engraving individualises an object, may help identify the owner of a lost piece and has historical significance on old objects. Valuable pieces should be hand engraved: line width and depth can be varied, whereas a machine-cut groove is shallow and uniform and withstands heavy wear poorly. Machine engraving suits base-metal objects, medals and watch backs.
Granulation
Often associated with filigree, granulation decorates the surface with tiny metal grains (Latin granum, grain or bead). Like filigree, most granulated pieces are cast copies.
Reticulation
Old silver spectacle and cigarette cases often have a wrinkled, reticulated surface. Heating the silver sheet melts its surface, which contracts into folds as it solidifies. Three-dimensional patterns may also be made by etching metal from the surface with suitable acids.
Wire inlay
Used most often on steel parts of weapons or oriental brass decorative plates. Grooves are cut into the surface and wires of differently coloured metals are set into them.
6 · Looking after objects
Use, storage, cleaning and repair
Use
Chemicals are destructive to pearls and delicate stones. Creams, for example, penetrate turquoise’s pores and turn it green. Put jewellery on only after applying make-up and fragrance. Thin or hollow jewellery will not withstand daily wear; remove all jewellery at night. Flattened chains break easily and cannot be restored to their original form.
Some foods harm silver: tartaric acid corrodes it, while lutefisk, mayonnaise and eggs cause tarnishing.
Storage
Always clean jewellery and silver before storing it. Dirt and fingerprints can tarnish silver within weeks. Store pieces so that they cannot rub against one another. Flat and fine chains are less likely to break or knot if hung up.
Do not keep stone-set jewellery in a hot place. Heat can expand inclusions even in hard stones until the stone breaks, and can change some colours: intense heat may turn violet amethyst into yellow citrine. Pewter becomes brittle in frost and may develop dark, crumbly patches known as tin pest.
Cleaning
Goldsmiths’ shops sell products intended for cleaning precious metals. These agents are poisonous: wear protective gloves, ventilate the room and rinse objects thoroughly in clean water. A goldsmith will produce the best result and can polish surface scratches at the same time.
Gold jewellery
Mild soapy water is suitable for gold and hard stones, but not porous stones or pearls. A drop of ammonia may be added. Any brush used should be extremely soft.
Silverware
First rinse away dust and loose dirt under running water so that they cannot scratch the surface during further cleaning. Use silver-cleaning liquid, paste or cloth from a goldsmith’s shop. Liquids also remove deliberately blackened decoration. Clean the insides of jugs with washing-up liquid so that poisonous cleaner is not left behind. Do not wash silver vessels or cutlery in a dishwasher: heat may loosen handles and strongly alkaline detergent attacks silver.
Bronze objects
If lacquer has worn away and the object has darkened, clean it with a silver-polishing cloth or a brass-and-copper cleaner. First remove the remaining lacquer with acetone or nail-polish remover, then wash with washing-up liquid. Once dry, it may be relacquered with spray metal lacquer or clear nail varnish.
Condition checks
Periodically inspect, or ask a goldsmith to inspect, chains, clasps, stone settings and the silk thread in pearl necklaces.
Repair
Never allow an amateur to repair a precious-metal article with tin solder: tin and lead can ruin precious metals. When leaving an object for repair, obtain a proper receipt with as precise a description as possible. Ask for an estimate and whether its marks will survive the work. Lost marks can be replaced by a goldsmith or assay office. When the guide appeared, an article was retained for three months after the stated completion date and then delivered to the lost-property office.
7 · Well-being
Jewellery and allergy
As a rule, the nobler the metal, the lower the risk of allergy or hypersensitivity. Nickel is the most common allergen in jewellery.
Other problems are also possible. Hollow jewellery and woven chains collect dirt, wide rings cause perspiration, and poorly finished objects may have sharp edges or patterns which rub the skin sore. Have piercings performed only by a specialist. A piercing is always an open wound into which bacteria can readily enter in unhygienic conditions, and it must be cared for patiently and thoroughly.
8 · Advice
Sources of further information
The following bodies provided information and services when the guide appeared. Names and responsibilities may since have changed.
Tukes
- supervised the sector
- registered manufacturers and importers
- inspected goods on sale
- participated in development and research
- issued guidance and information.
Other authorities
- the Consumer Agency and municipal consumer advisers
- health authorities and health inspectors.
Assay offices
- analysed precious metals and other materials
- marked precious-metal articles.
Trade bodies
- Finnish Goldsmiths’ Association
- Finnish Watchmakers’ Association
- Finnish Watch and Precious-Metal Retailers’ Association
- Crafts and Design Association
- Engravers’ Association.
Businesses
- metal-testing, refining and supply companies
- gem-testing companies
- precious-metal dealers, importers and manufacturers.
Education
At the time, vocational goldsmith training was offered by Lahti Polytechnic / Institute of Design, Lahti Institute of Crafts and Design, and the Järvenpää Training Centre of the Finnish Association of People with Physical Disabilities. Many other craft and design schools provided relevant skills.
Hobby groups
- goldsmithing clubs
- gem clubs
- jewellery-making courses at adult education centres.
9 · Terms